List of Illustrations and Tables ix
Introduction 1

PART ONE: HISTORY OF TAOISM
1. Shamanic Origins (3000–800 BCE) 11
The Legendary Yü 11
Shamanism in Literate China 14
Duties of Shamans in Chou Society 14
The Shamanic Tradition of Southern China 16
The Legacy of Shamanism in Later Developments of Taoism 17
Further Readings 18

2. The Classical Period (700–220 BCE) 20
The Political and Historical Background of the Spring and Autumn Period 21
Classical Taoism in the Spring and Autumn Period: Lao-tzu and the Tao-te ching 22
The Teachings of the Tao-te ching 23
The Political and Historical Background of the Warring States Period 26
Classical Taoism in the Warring States Period 27
Further Readings 29

3. The Transformation of Taoism from Philosophy into Organized Religion (20 BCE–600 CE) 31
The Beginnings of Religious Taoism 31
Taoism Becomes an Organized Religion 33
The Golden Age of Taoist Religion 37
Further Readings 42

4. The Rise of Mystical Taoism (300–600 CE) 44
Mysticism and Shang-ch'ing Taoism 44
The Predecessors of Shang-ch'ing Taoism 46
Shang-ch'ing Taoism in the Chin Dynasty 47
Shang-ch'ing Taoism in the Southern Dynasties 52
The Teachings of Shang-ch'ing Taoism 54
The Legacy of Shang-ch'ing Taoism 62
Further Readings 63

5. The Development of Alchemical Taoism (200–1200 CE) 66
The Beginnings of Alchemy 67
The Teachings of the Tsan-tung-chi (Triplex Unity) 68
The Teachings of Ko Hung's P'ao-p'u-tzu (The Sage Who Embraces Simplicity) 71
The Separation of Internal and External Alchemy 73
The Height of Development of Internal Alchemy 76
Further Readings 79

6. The Synthesis of Taoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism (1000 CE–present) 81
The Philosophical Synthesis 81
The Religious Synthesis 86
Variations of the Synthesis and the Rise of Sects in Taoism 88
A New Synthesis of Confucianism, Zen Buddhism, and Taoist Internal Alchemy 91
Further Readings 95

PART TWO: SYSTEMS OF TAOISM
7. Magical Taoism: The Way of Power 99
Basic Beliefs of Magical Taoism 99
Principal Practices of Magical Taoism 101
Sects in Magical Taoism 115
Further Words on Magical Taoism 117
Further Readings 118

8. Divinational Taoism: The Way of Seeing 119
A Brief History of Divinational Taoism 119
Principal Ideas of Divinational Taoism 124
Forms of Divination 133
Celestial Divination: Tzu-wei Tu-su 134
Terrestrial Divination: Feng-shui 137
Other Forms of Divination 141
Further Words on Divinational Taoism 142
Further Readings 143

9. Ceremonial Taoism: The Way of Devotion 145
The Main Features of Ceremonial Taoism 145
The Taoist Deities 146
The Administrative Structure of the Taoist Celestial Realm 159
Taoist Festivals and Ceremonies 162
Sects in Ceremonial Taoism 164
Further Words on Ceremonial Taoism 170
Further Readings 170

10. Internal-Alchemical Taoism: The Way of Transformation 172
Basic Ideas of Internal Alchemy 172
Major Symbols in the Language of Internal Alchemy 173
Steps in the Alchemical Process 178
Approaches to Internal Alchemy 183
Further Words on Internal-Alchemical Taoism 187
Further Readings 188

11. Action and Karma Taoism: The Way of Right Action 190
Historical Predecessors of Action and Karma Taoism 190
Principal Beliefs in Action and Karma Taoism 193
The Significance of Action and Karma Taoism in Taoist Spirituality 194
Further Readings 195

PART THREE: TAOIST PRACTICES
12. Meditation 199
Forms of Taoist Meditation 199
Further Words on Taoist Meditation 210
Further Readings 211

13. Techniques for Cultivating the Body 212
Techniques of External Strengthening 212
Techniques of Internal Strengthening 214
Techniques That Work on Both External and Internal Strengthening 222
The Use of Herbs and Foods 227
Further Readings 229

14. Rites of Purification, Ceremony, and Talismanic Magic 231
Rites of Purification 231
Ceremony 233
The Taoist Altar 235
Talismans 238
Further Readings 243

APPENDIXES
1. Dynasties of China 247
2. Map of China 250
3. Bibliography of Further Readings 252

Index 257