From Chapter 1: Landscape Elements

FIRE (FLAMES)

The billowing mass of flames that surrounds wrathful deities is described as a 'blaze of awareness fire'. The wisdom-energy of wrathful forms blazes like the sun's inexhaustible fire. The sun, as a symbol of pure wisdom, is consumed with fire, yet is not itself consumed. Its eternal fire is inexhaustible. Like the sun, wrathful forms abide in the ultimate emptiness as the immovable sphere of dharmadhatu (Tib. chos dbyings), the expanse of absolute reality of the enlightened Buddha mind. The wrath of these deities is not ordinary anger, but wisdom-anger manifesting in its most indestructible or vajra nature, with the capacity of terrifying all evil spirits such as maras and rudras.

The twisting and blazing fiery aureole of wrathful forms is also described as kalagni, meaning 'the fire of time'; kalagni is literally the 'fire at the end of time', the ultimate conflagration of the universe at the end of this aeon. Each kalpa, or cosmic cycle of the universe, is believed to end in a penultimate destruction by flood, wind, or fire. Kalagni is also identified astrologically as the 'tenth' planet. Its yellow disc is the uppermost of the four planetary discs on which the deity Kalachakra stands, the three other discs being a black Rahu disc (eclipse planet), a red sun disc, and a white moon disc. In the inner yoga practices of the Kalachakra Tantra, kalagni is identified with the central channel below the navel centre, and Rahu with the central channel above. The internal fire below the navel centre, awakened in the yoga of 'inner heat', is known as chandali (Tib. gtum mo), meaning the 'fierce woman'.

Like water, flames are also depicted in a realistic manner in Tibetan art, the twisting tongues of fire rising to a point and reddening at their tips as they cool. Aureole flames can be drawn with much grace and expression of movement, the flames curling to one side and leaping out at the other. This transverse movement of the flames usually enhances the dynamic body posture of the wrathful deity at its centre. The flames may also emanate from the deity's heart, with the tongues of fire reaching out towards the ten directions. Inverted horseshoe-shaped auras of flames can also encircle wrathful forms, but are more common with semi-wrathful or tutelary deities (Tib. yi dam), such as Hevajra, Kalachakra, or Chakrasamvara.

In the painting of flames a base of minium orange is usually applied, then each individual flame is shaded with vermilion or red towards its tip. U-shaped folds occur where several flame-tips emanate from the same bank of flames; the tear-shaped centres of these folds are painted in a dark tone to give body to the flame mass. The curling roots of the flames are also shaded into red, as are the inner areas of the U-folds. The outlines of the flames are decorated with small gold lines, which enhances their luminosity and fiery quality. Thangkas painted on a black background either have vermilion-shaded flames with a gold outline, or gold-shaded flames with a gold outline.

Certain deities, such as Palden Lhamo, are encircled by a mass of wind rather than flames. Wind is coloured and shaded in green, this being the colour of the element air.

Wind is very much like fire in shape and formation, but it has thicker billows than fire and less slender tongues. Consequently it is usually painted with more density and less complexity than flames. Amongst the swirling green winds there usually appear friction sparks, like the lightning produced by crashing thunderclouds. These sparks, often described as radiating in all directions, are painted as small tongues of bright red fire which sporadically lick around the edges of the green winds. On less wrathful forms the element of air may be represented by cumulus cloudbanks outlined with blue and indigo. Flames may also circle around the edge of haloes, such as in paintings of the four guardian kings; the circle of flames usually envelops an inner halo of green, representing the element air. Without air fire would not exist, as wind gives life to fire. The great 'wind at the end of time' causes the kalagni fire to blaze ferociously.

Flames also emanate from wrathful offerings, the hot hells, and cremation ground scenes. The sacred fire (dhuni or agnikund), often kept perpetually alight by ascetics who practise fire rituals, is believed to 'speak' with six or eight voices, the crackling, roaring, snapping flames revealing the prophetic voice of the fire god, Agni.

Plates 12 and 13
Illustrated in these two drawings are examples of flame formations. Sparks are illustrated in the lower left and centre of Plate 13, where they appear as thin tapering tongues of fire. Flames are not difficult to draw and shade. As with clouds, the curving base lines of flames should always have a rounded edge and not come to a sharp point. Flames gracefully drawn with long slender tips are believed to increase the wisdom of the artist, a belief inspired by the sharp, flaming tip of Manjushri's sword. A stylistic innovation, present in both my flame and cloud drawings, is the addition of an inner crescent-shaped line to the 'U-shapes' in flames, and the 'comma-shapes' in clouds. These inner lines are never illustrated in painting, as the colour contrast between the dark nucleus of the flame or cloud interior and its lighter surrounding areas creates the requisite harmony and depth. I habitually use these inner crescent lines in drawing, as I find they increase perspective, gravity, and complexity, giving a sharper definition to flame and cloud designs.

AIR (CLOUDS)

Tibet is a high altitude mountainous plateau with most of its land over 12,000 feet above sea level. With such rarified air and thin atmosphere, the sky appears a very deep azure blue, and the sun blazes with a searing white intensity. The clarity of distant vision and the sharp contrast of light and shadow light up the landscape, lending much magical enchantment to the view. Colours are very intense in such a light, haloes may appear around the sun, a distant mountain range appears in pristine detail, the proverbial silver lining of clouds may suddenly refract all the colours of the rainbow.

All forms of magical cloud formations are to be found in Tibetan art. They are never heavy or sombre, but always full of light, colour, form, and movement. Clouds wreathe themselves around the high peaks, veiling them in mystery The convection caused by dramatic mountain rifts results in rapid air currents producing an ever changing cloudscape. Lenticular wave clouds (Altocumulus lenticularis), formed by the wave motion of rising and falling air pockets over mountainous terrain, create strange flying saucer or lens-shaped cloud patterns. Wispy streaks of cirrus clouds create 'mare's tail' streamers, and banks of long stratocumulus clouds produce perspective lines or 'streets' of receding clouds.

Great skill is employed in the depiction of clouds in thangka painting. Cumulus cloudbanks are drawn with a series of stylised arcs which render each cloud as a separate and clearly defined object. Symmetrical cumulus clouds spiral outwards from several focuses, producing a series of levels within each cloud. These focuses are painted as dark 'commas' or 'nipples' within the central spirals of the clouds. This 'nipple', as it is described in Chinese art, is shaped like half of a yin yang symbol, and represents the vortex or 'seed essence', which nourishes the cloud and renders it fertile with life-giving rain. Symmetrical cumulus clouds with two or three commas are very common in Tibetan art; they are known as simhamukha or 'lion-faced' clouds because of their resemblance to lion heads.

Clouds are usually shaded from a white base-colour at the top to a slightly toned colour at the base. Many colour schemes are used in the depiction of clouds, and their shading as three-dimensional integrated forms can be highly complex (see Plate 25). Flat-based cumulus clouds rest upon a horizontal beam of cloud, which is also shaded along its length. Truncated mare's tails twist away below a cumulus cloudbank, giving the illusion of the cloud moving across the sky. The clearly defined edges of clouds contrast sharply with the dark background of sky or landscape in which the clouds float.

A technique of hard-edge outlining applied to certain clouds involves painting one or more narrow bands of colour (usually light blue or pink) around the cloud's edge. An outer outline of a darker colour—such as indigo—is then applied, often with a serrated edge. Gold is also used within the outlining of some clouds. Gold clouds, depicted on black or vermilion background canvases, are shaded outwards from their interiors using a gold wash technique. The cloud outlines are then painted in thin gold line.

In the wrathful landscape illustration of the 'eight great cemeteries' which are depicted around mandalas, eight specific storm clouds are listed. In the Vajrabhairava Tantra these clouds are known as: the proclaiming, the moving, the wrathful, the great proclaiming, the stable,the filling, the effortful, and the furious. Their inner symbolism represents the white drops of bodhichitta which descend from the crown centre in the head.

In very finely painted thangkas the choreographic movement of clouds can resemble a divine ballet of the heavens. Dragons and gods, who glide through the clouds, entwine in the passage of clouds across the skies. The delicacy of the shading of clouds, sky, flowers, water, and rock formations are often the most time-consuming aspects of thangka painting. A fine thangka, which took a year to paint, will inevitably display such exquisite shading.

Plate 18
Shown here are complex cumulus cloud formations. At the top are truncated mare's tail cumulus clouds; the ends of their tails can either blend subtly into the sky background or be sharply truncated. Below these are a row of upward-billowing clouds (known meteorologically as Altocumulus castellanus, as they resemble castle walls). In the centre are a stack of cumulus clouds bearing rainwater above their spiral 'nipple' centres. In the lower area are examples of drifting cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds.

Plate 19
Depicted here are mainly dense banks of cumulus clouds interspersed with drifting mare's tail designs. Mare's tail clouds resemble the body and swirling serpent tail of nagas. In the upper right corner and mid lower left are examples of Chinese-style 'hook' clouds, which take the form of ghostly drifting mists. The flat-based stratocumulus clouds, illustrated on each side of the middle section, are clouds which are pulled or drawn out by the wind. Their horizontal bases are usually shaded to resemble a rainbow. At the bottom cumulus clouds drift amongst mountain ranges.

Plate 20
Depicted here are examples of swirling clouds and elongated mare's tail cumulus clouds. The linear passages of some of the swirling cloud movements are similar to the drapery billows on the floating silk scarfs of deities. Their integrated cloud components are refined to produce an evocative grace.