Preface ix

Opening Remarks 1

Scientific Method and Validation JEREMY W. HAYWARD 6
The Search for Objective Reality 6
Beginnings in the Middle Ages 8
Breakdown of the Medieval View 9
The Success of the Newtonian Program 10
Scientific Certainty 11
Logical Empiricism 14
Problems with Logical Empiricism 17

Questions of Method: A Conversation 25
Buddhist Epistemology and Logical Empiricism 25
The Logic of Existence 34
Perceptual Illusion 38
Applying Logic to the Question of Existence 41
Verification of Meditative Experience 45

Perception and the Brain FRANCISCO J. VARELA 50
The Nervous System and the Capacity for Motion 50
Neurons Allow Communication between Distant Cells 52
What Are Neurons? 55
Communication between Neurons 57
Circuits of Neurons 60
The Two Main Assumptions of Neuroscience 62

Sentient Beings: A Conversation 64
What Is Adaptation? 64
What Is a Sentient Being? 66
Living Matter 71
The Causes of Momentary Change 73
The Kalachakra, Modern Cosmology, and Neurology 77
Dream Research 79

Cognitive Psychology ELEANOR ROSCH 84
Historical Roots of Cognitive Psychology 85
Introspectionism 85
Behaviorism 88
Critiques of Behaviorism 93
Cognitive and Information-Processing Psychology 97
Very Short Term Memory 100
Short and Long-Term Memory 101

Self Selflessness, and Sense Consciousness: A Conversation 107
Cognitive Psychology and Buddhist Thought 107
Self and Selflessness 108
What Is the Nature of Mind Itself? 114
What Is the Basis of Continuity? 117
Sense Consciousness 122

Artificial Intelligence NEWCOMB GREENLEAF 126
What Is a Computer? 127
Programs 131
What Is Intelligence? 132
Four Strategies for Artificial-Intelligence Research 134
A Game of Chess 136
The Expert System 138
The Society of Mind 140
Computers in Society 144

Consciousness, Gross and Subtle: A Conversation 146
On Artificial Minds 146
Could Computers Have Consciousness? 150
The Origin of Consciousness 153
Same Body, Different Person 154
Levels of Consciousness 157
Dualism, Subtler and Grosser Bodies 162

Development of the Human Brain ROBERT B. LIVINGSTON 166
Evolutionary Importance of Cooperation 166
Fertilization 168
Importance of Care During Pregnancy and Early Years 171
When and Where Does Consciousness Enter the Embryo? 175
Early Embryonic Development 175
Nervous System Organization 177
The Early Brain's Control of Perception 182
The Role of Feelings in Memory 186

Perception and Consciousness: A Conversation 190
From Sensory to Conceptual Consciousness 190
Ascertaining and Nonascertaining Consciousness 192
A Buddhist Definition of Consciousness 193
Is Perception of a World "Out There"? 196
When Is a Perception Valid? 203
How Does Buddhism Validate Perception? 209

Evolution of Life FRANCISCO J. VARELA AND LUIGI LUISI 213
How Were the Main Ideas of Evolution Formed? 213
Modification by Descent 214
Adaptation 218
The New Synthesis 219
Molecular Evolution 220
The Origin of Life 225
Altruism 228
Species Are Not Getting Better at Living on the Planet 231
Selection Pressure Is Not the Main Factor in Adaptation 232

Evolution, Karma, and Compassion: A Conversation 236
Criticism of the Popular Idea of the Struggle for Survival 236
Karma and Evolution 238
Is There a Direction to Evolution? 243
Can Compassion Be Learned? 247

Closing Remarks 255

About the Paricipants 257
Sources of Illustrations 260
Index 261