Amitābha (also Amita), Skt. (Jap., Amida), lit., “Boundless Light”; one of the most impor­tant and popular buddhas of the Mahāyāna, unknown in early Buddhism. He is ruler of the western paradise Sukhāvati, which is not to be understood as a location but as a state of consciousness. Amitābha is at the center of the worship of the Pure Land school of Chinese and Japanese Bud­dhism. He symbolizes mercy and wisdom.

Anātman Skt. (Pali, anatta); nonself, non-essentiality; one of the three marks of every­thing existing. The anātman doctrine is one of the central teachings of Bud­dhism; it says that no self exists in the sense of a permanent, eternal, integral, and independent substance within an individual existent. Thus the ego in Buddhism is no more than a transito­ry and changeable—and therefore a suffering-prone—empirical personality put together from the five aggregates (skandha).

Avatokiteshvara (Avalokiteśvara), Skt.; one of the most important bodhisattvas of the Mahāyāna. The literal meaning of Avalokitesh­vara is variously interpreted. One interpretation is the “Lord Who Looks Down,” in which the last component of the name is taken to be ishvara, “lord.” Another interpretation is “He Who Hears the Sounds [Outcries] of the World” or also the “Sound That Illumines the World,” in which svara, “sound” is regarded as the final component of the name. In any case, Avalo­kiteshvara embodies one of the two fundamen­tal aspects of buddhahood, compassion (karunā), in virtue of which he is often given the epithet Mahākarunā, “Great Compassion.” The other fundamental aspect of buddhahood is wisdom (prajñā), which is embodied by the bodhisattva Mañjushrī. Avalokiteshvara is the power of the buddha Amitābha manifested as a bodhisattva and appears as his helper. His limitless compassion ex­presses itself in his wonderful ability to help all beings who turn to him at times of extreme dan­ger. In folk belief, Avalokiteshvara also protects from natural catastrophe and grants blessings to children.

In China Avalokiteshvara is venerated under the name Kuan-yin, in Japan under the name Kannon (also Kanzeon and Kwannon), and in both countries is generally considered to be female. The Tibetan form of Avalokiteshvara is Chenresi.

Avidyā Skt., lit., “ignorance, nescience.” As a Vedantic term, avidyā refers to both individual and cosmic ignorance. Individual ignorance is the inability to distinguish between the transient and the intransient, between the real and the unreal; cosmic ignorance is maya. Its effect is the same as that of ajñāna (Pali, avijja), which is delusion, that is, noncognizance of the four noble truths, the three precious ones (triratna), and the law of karma. Avidyā is the first part in the nexus of conditionality, which leads to entanglement in the world of samsāra as well as to the three cankers. It is one of the passions (klesha) and the last of the ten fetters.

Avidyā is considered to be the root of everything unwholesome in the world and is defined as ignorance of the suffering-ridden character of existence. It is that state of mind that does not correspond to reality, that holds illusory phe­nomena for reality, and brings forth suffering. Ignorance occasions craving (trishnā) and is thereby the essential factor binding beings to the cycle of rebirth. According to the Mahāyāna view, avidyā with regard to the emptiness of appearances means that a person who is not enlightened will take the phenomenal world to be the only reality and thus conceal from him- or herself the essential truth.

Bhāvanā Skt., Pali; meditation, mind devel­opment, all those practices usually designated as meditation. Two types of bhāvanā are distin­guished: the development of tranquillity (shamatha) and clear seeing (vipashyanā). Tranquillity is the prerequisite for attaining clear seeing. According to the Visuddhi­magga there are forty different exercises leading to the development of tranquillity. They include absorption (dhyāna), contemplation (samāpati), and concentration (samādhi).

Bodhichitta Skt., lit., “awakened mind”; the mind of enlightenment, one of the central no­tions of Mahāyāna Buddhism. In the Tibetan tradition it is seen as having two aspects, rela­tive and absolute. The relative mind of enlight­enment is divided again into two phases (1) the intention and wish, nurtured by limitless com­passion, to attain liberation (nirvāna) for the sake of the welfare of all beings and (2) actual entry into meditation, the purpose of which is the acquisition of the appropriate means to ac­tualize this wish. The absolute mind of enlightenment is viewed as the vision of the true nature of phenomena. The various methods for arousing the mind of enlightenment stem primarily from Atīsha and entered into all schools of Tibetan Bud­dhism through him.

Bodhisattva Skt., lit., “enlightenment be­ing”; in Mahāyāna Buddhism a bodhisattva is a being who seeks buddhahood through the sys­tematic practice of the perfect virtues (pāramitā) but renounces complete entry into nirvāna until all beings are saved. The determin­ing factor for his action is compassion (karunā), supported by highest insight and wis­dom (prajñā). A bodhisattva provides active help, is ready to take upon himself the suffering of all other beings, and to transfer his own kar­mic merit to other beings. The way of a bodhi­sattva begins with arousing the thought of en­lightenment (bodhichitta) and taking the bodhisattva vow (pranidhāna). The career of a bodhisattva is divided into ten stages (bhūmi). The bodhisattva ideal replaced in Mahāyāna the Hīnayāna ideal of the arhat, whose effort is directed towards the attainment of his own liberation.

Buddha Skt., Pali, lit., “awakened one.”

1. A person who has achieved the enlightenment that leads to release from the cycle of existence (samsāra) and has thereby attained complete liberation (nirvāna). The content of his teach­ing, which is based on the experience of enlight­enment, is the four noble truths. A buddha has overcome every kind of craving (trishnā); although even he also has pleasant and unpleasant sensations, he is not ruled by them and remains innerly untouched by them. After his death he is not reborn again.

Two kinds of buddhas are distinguished: the pratyeka-buddha, who is completely enlight­ened but does not expound the teaching; and the samyak-sambuddha, who expounds for the wel­fare of all beings the teaching that he has discov­ered anew. A samyak-sambuddha is omniscient (sarvajñatā) and possesses the ten powers of a buddha (dashabala) and the four certainties. The buddha of our age is Shākyamuni. (See also Buddha 2.)

Shākyamuni Buddha, the historical Buddha, is not the first and only buddha. Already in the early Hīnayāna texts, six buddhas who preceded him in earlier epochs are mentioned: Vipashyin (Pali, Vipassi), Shikin (Sikhī), Vishvabhū (Vessabhū), Krakuchchanda (Kakusandha), Konagamana, and Kashyapa (Kassapa). The buddha who will follow Shākyamuni in a future age and renew the dharma is Maitreya. Be­yond these, one finds indications in the litera­ture of thirteen further buddhas, of which the most important is Dīpamkara, whose disci­ple Shākyamuni was in his previous existence as the ascetic Sumedha. The stories of these leg­endary buddhas are contained in the Buddhavamsa, a work from the Khuddaka­nikāya.

2. The historical Buddha. He was born in 563 BCE, the son of a prince of the Shākyas, whose small kingdom in the foothills of the Himalayas lies in present-day Nepal. His first name was Siddhārtha, his family name Gauta­ma. Hence he is also called Gautama Buddha. (For the story of his life, see Siddhārtha Gauta­ma.) During his life as a wandering ascetic, he was known as Shākyamuni, the “Silent Sage of the Shākyas.” In order to distinguish the histori­cal Buddha from the transcendent buddhas (see buddha 3), he is generally called Shākyamuni Buddha or Buddha Shākyamuni.

3. The “buddha principle,” which manifests itself in the most various forms. Whereas in Hīnayāna only the existence of one buddha in every age is accepted (in which case the Buddha is considered an earthly being who teaches hu­mans), for the Mahāyāna there are countless transcendent buddhas. According to the Mahāyāna teaching of the trikāya, the buddha principle manifests itself in three principal forms, the so-called three bodies (trikāya). In this sense the transcendent buddhas represent embodiments of various aspects of the buddha principle.

4. A synonym for the absolute, ultimate reality devoid of form, color, and all other properties—buddha-nature.

Buddha-nature (Skt., buddhatā); according to the Mahāyāna view, the true, immutable, and eternal nature of all beings. Since all beings pos­sess buddha-nature, it is possible for them to at­tain enlightenment and become a buddha, re­gardless of what level of existence they occupy.

The interpretation of the essence of buddha-nature varies from school to school; there is con­troversy over whether all beings and also inani­mate entities actually possess buddha-nature.

Dalai Lama (dalai bla-ma), Mong. and Tib., lit., “teacher whose wisdom is as great as the ocean”; an honorary title bestowed by the Mon­golian prince Altan Khan on the third head of the Geluk school in 1578. This close con­nection with Mongolia brought the school of Tsongkhapa into a position of political preemi­nence, which with the fifth Dalai Lama (1617–82) was consolidated into rulership over all of Tibet. Since this time, the Dalai Lama has been regarded as an incarnation of Avalokitesh­vara, and the Panchen Lama has been vener­ated as his spiritual representative. Each Dalai Lama is considered a reincarnation (tulku) of the preceding Dalai Lamas.

The Dalai Lamas not only fulfilled their role as heads of state. Among them are also great scholars and poets filled with joie de vivre, like the sixth Dalai Lama. The fourteenth Dalai Lama, in exile since 1959, combines in his per­son a spiritual and political authority that is still binding for the Tibetan people.

The individual Dalai Lamas are as follows:

1. Dalai Lama Gendün Drub (1391–­­­1475)
2. Dalai Lama Gendün Gyatso (1475–1542)
3. Dalai Lama Sönam Gyatso (1543–1588)
4. Dalai Lama Yönten Gyatso (1589–1617)
5. Dalai Lama Losang Gyatso (1617–1682)
6. Dalai Lama Jamyang Gyatso (1683–1706)
7. Dalai Lama Kelsang Gyatso (1708–1757)
8. Dalai Lama Jampel Gyatso (1758–1804)
9. Dalai Lama Lungtog Gyatso (1806–1815)
10. Dalai Lama Tsültrim Gyatso (1816–1837)
11. Dalai Lama Kedrub Gyatso (1838–1856)
12. Dalai Lama Trinle Gyatso (1856–1875)
13. Dalai Lama Tubten Gyatso (1876–1933)
14. Dalai Lama Tenzin Gyatso (born 1935)

Dāna Skt., Pali, roughly “gift, alms, dona­tion”; voluntary giving of material, energy, or wisdom to others, regarded as one of the most important Buddhist virtues. Dāna is one of the six perfections (pāramitā), one of the ten con­templations (anussati), and the most impor­tant of the meritorious works (punya).

In the Hīnayāna dāna is regarded above all as a means to overcoming greed and egoism and avoiding suffering a future life. In Mahāyāna dāna is associated with the virtues of kindness (maitrī) and compassion (karunā) and viewed as an essential factor in leading all beings to enlightenment.

Dharma Skt., lit, “carrying, holding” (Pali, dhamma; Chin., fa; Jap., hō or datsuma); central notion of Buddhism, used in various meanings.

1. The cosmic law, the “great norm,” underlying our world; above all, the law of karmically deter­mined rebirth.

2. The teaching of the Buddha, who recog­nized and formulated this “law”; thus the teach­ing that expresses the universal truth. The dhar­ma in this sense existed already before the birth of the historical Buddha, who is no more than a manifestation of it. It is in the dharma in this sense that a Buddhist takes refuge (trisha­rana).

3. Norms of behavior and ethical rules (shīla).

4. Manifestation of reality, of the general state of affairs; thing, phenomenon.

5. Mental content, object of thought, idea—a reflection of a thing in the human mind.

6. Term for the so-called factors of existence, which the Hīnayāna considers as building blocks of the empirical personality and its world.

Dharmakāya Skt. See Trikāya.

Dōgen Zenji also Dōgen Kigen or Eihei Dōgen, 1200–1253; Japanese Zen master who brought the tradition of the Sōtō school to Ja­pan; without any question the most important Zen master of Japan. He is also considered Ja­pan’s greatest religious personality and is vener­ated there by all Buddhist schools as a saint or bodhisattva. However, he is often misunder­stood as having been a philosopher and referred to as the “most profound and original thinker” ever produced by Japan. What is missed here is that his writings, although they do treat the most profound existential questions, do not represent a philosophy of life. What Dōgen writes does not originate in philosophical speculation and is not the result of a thought process but rather is the expression of immediate inner experience of the living truth of Zen.

In 1223 Dōgen traveled to China, where he experienced profound enlightenment under Master T’ien-t’ung Ju-ching and received from him the seal of confirmation (inka­shōmei) of the lineage of Sōtō Zen (Ch’an). In 1227 he returned to Japan and lived for ten years in Kyōto, first in the Kennin-ji monastery, then in the Kōshō(hōrin)-ji monastery. In order to protect his lineage from the influence of worldly power, which in the imperial city was often all too great, he withdrew to a hermitage in Echizen province (today Fukui province). From the hut in which he then lived gradually developed a large monastery, first called Daibutsu-ji, later Eihei-ji. It is still today, with Sōji-ji, one of the most important monasteries of Japanese Sōtō Zen. Dōgen’s principal work, Shōbō-genzō, is considered one of the most profound writings of Japanese Zen literature and as the most outstanding work of the re­ligious literature of Japan.

Duhkha Skt. (Pali, dukkha); suffering; a cen­tral concept in Buddhism, which lies at the root of the four noble truths. The characteristic of suffering is one of the three marks of existence.

Duhkha signifies not only suffering in the sense of unpleasant sensations; rather it refers to everything, both material and mental, that is conditioned, that is subject to arising and pass­ing away, that is comprised of the five skandhas, and that is not in a state of liberation. Thus everything that is temporarily pleasant is suffering, since it is subject to ending. Duhkha arises because of desire and craving (trishnā) and can be overcome by the elimination of desire. The means to bring about the extinc­tion of suffering is shown by the eightfold path.

Dzogchen (rdzogs-chen), Tib., lit., “great perfection”; the primary teaching of the Ny­ingma school of Tibetan Buddhism. This teaching, also known as ati-yoga (extraordinary yoga), is considered by its adherents as the de­finitive and most secret teaching of Shākyamuni Buddha. It is called “great” be­cause there is nothing more sublime; it is called “perfection” because no further means are nec­essary. According to the experience of dzog­chen practitioners, purity of mind is always present and needs only to be recognized. The tradition of dzogchen was brought to Tibet in the eighth century by Padmasambhava and Vimilamitra; in the 14th century it was synthe­sized by Longchenpa into a unified system. The condensation of this system by Jigme Ling­pa (1730–98) remains an authoritative expres­sion of the great-perfection tradition up to the present day.